Parental Influences

Parents, of course, are typically considered the major influence in the socialization of girls for their gender and sexual roles. Various background factors, including cultural norms, religious beliefs, and social class mores, result in differential expectations. Beginning with gender assignment at birth and the subsequent experience of growing up as a boy or girl, re­searchers note that social expectations are clearly as important as physical characteristics (Beal, 1994). For girls these expectations typically include their parents’ belief that daughters are in need of extra protection, that they are also more fragile, easily frightened, and physically vulnerable (Kue bli & Krieger, 1991). These parental views lead to differential treatment, such as greater supervision and protectiveness. It is revealing that in spite of the limitations often placed on girls, many girls appear to recognize the disjunction between their capabilities and the social or parental restric tions. Boys, on the other hand, accept the limited activities of girls as due to capabilities (Smith & Russell, 1984). Although relative differences exist across ethnic, cultural, and class boundaries, in virtually all groups, women are more restricted and are treated with a different set of parental expectations. These gender-typed expectations become more explicit for girls as they approach puberty and adolescence, and the soon-to-be woman faces the demands and limitations of finding her place in the com munity.