A third method for studying human sexual behavior is direct observation. In this method, researchers observe and record responses of participating subjects. Although observational research is quite common in the social sciences, such as anthropology, sociology, and psychology, little research of this nature occurs in sexology because of the highly personal and private nature of human sexual expression.
The most famous example of direct observational research is the widely acclaimed work of William Masters and Virginia Johnson, cited frequently in this textbook. Masters and Johnson used direct observation in a laboratory setting to learn about physiological changes during sexual arousal. The result, Human Sexual Response (1966), was based on laboratory observations of 10,000 completed sexual response cycles. Their research sample consisted of sexually responsive volunteers (382 women and 312 men), drawn largely from an academic community of above-average intelligence and socioeconomic background—obviously not a representative sample of the entire U. S. population. However, the physical signs of sexual arousal, the subject of their study, appear to be rather stable across a wide range of people with diverse backgrounds.
Masters and Johnson used a number of techniques to record physiological sexual responses. These included the use of photographic equipment and instruments to measure and record muscular and vascular changes throughout the body. They also used direct observation as well as ingenious measurement devices to record changes in sex organs. (Electronic devices for measuring sexual arousal will be described later in this chapter.) Masters and Johnson recorded responses to a variety of stimulus situations in their laboratory: masturbation, coitus with a partner, and stimulation of the breasts alone. As a follow-up to all recorded observations, each participant was extensively interviewed.
Masters and Johnson’s observational approach provided a wealth of information about the manner in which women and men respond physiologically to sexual stimulation. Among other findings, they observed no biological difference between clitoral and vaginal orgasms. This finding and other observations by Masters and Johnson will be discussed at greater length in Chapter 6.
A more contemporary example of the direct observation method is provided by recent cutting-edge research that employs a technological tool called^functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to observe, record, and map areas of the human brain that are activated when individuals are exposed to visual erotica. Magnetic resonance imaging has also been used to provide precise measurements of genital changes during sexual
arousal. Two Spotlight on Research boxes in Chapter 6 highlight fascinating findings associated with the use of this powerful technology.
Direct observation has clear advantages as a research method. For studying sexual response patterns, seeing and measuring sexual behavior firsthand is clearly superior to relying on subjective reports of past experiences. Direct observation virtually eliminates the possibility of data falsification through memory deficits, boastful inflation, or guilt-induced repression. Furthermore, records of such behaviors can be kept indefinitely on videotape or film. But this approach also has disadvantages. A major problem lies in the often unanswerable question of just how much a subject’s behavior is influenced by the presence of even the most discreet observer. This question has been asked often since the publication of Masters and Johnson’s research. Researchers using direct observation attempt to minimize this potential complication by being as unobtrusive as possible, remaining in a fringe location, observing through one-way glass, or perhaps using technological tools such as remotely activated video cameras or fMRI devices. But the subject is still aware that he or she is being observed.
Although there is merit to criticisms of the direct-observation method,
Masters and Johnson’s research has demonstrated that it can withstand
the test of time. Their findings are still applied in many areas—including infertility
counseling, conception control, sex therapy, and sex education—with beneficial results.