Menstruation (men-stroo-A-shun), the sloughing off of uterine lining that takes place if conception has not occurred, is a sign of normal physical functioning. Negative attitudes about it persist in contemporary American society; however, young women typically have more positive attitudes about menstruation than do women in older generations (Marvan et al., 2005).
Attitudes About Menstruation
American folklore reveals many interesting ideas about menstruation and raises a question about whether negative beliefs about menstruation are meant to constrain women and reinforce their lower social status (Forbes et al., 2003). Negative myths surrounding menstruation date back to the Old Testament: "And if a woman have an issue and her issue in her flesh be blood, she shall be apart seven days: and whosoever toucheth her shall be unclean until the even" (Leviticus 15:19). Some Orthodox Jews still conform to this belief, and in practice, an Orthodox Jewish woman avoids sexual activity until after a ceremonial cleansing bath following the end of her period (Roth — baum & Jackson, 1990). Myths of past American folklore include the belief that it is harmful for a woman to be physically active during menstruation, that a corsage worn by a menstruating woman will wilt, and that a tooth filling done during menstruation will fall out (Milow, 1983).
The meanings of menstrual rituals in other cultures are often ambiguous, and little is actually known about the significance of menstrual taboos. In some societies a menstruating woman goes to a "menstrual house" for the duration of her menstruation. Researchers have rarely asked about the meaning of and experiences in the menstrual huts. Do women feel stigmatized or honored and relieved by the break from normal labor? Scattered reports suggest considerable variability, with positive meanings being fairly common. Menstrual customs can provide women with a means of solidarity, influence, and autonomy. For example, in some Native American traditions, women were
believed to be at their most powerful during menstruation. They would retreat to a ‘moon lodge" to be free of mundane daily chores. Blood flow was believed to purify women and to enable them to gather spiritual wisdom to benefit the entire tribe. Most Native American tribes also had celebrations for a girl’s first menstruation (Angier, 1999; Owen, 1993). For the Inca Indians in South America, shedding blood symbolized the transformation into adulthood; boys bled when elders pierced the boys’ ears and inserted large ear spools as part of their coming-of-age ceremony (Wiesner-Hanks, 2000).
In a few cultures, menstruation is described in lyrical words and positive images. The Japanese expression for a girl’s first menstruation is “the year of the cleavage of the melon," and one East Indian description of menstruation is the "flower growing in the house of the god of love" (Delaney et al., 1976). In some contemporary Hindu and Muslim Indian families, a religious ceremony is held after a girl begins menstruation (Marvan et al., 2006).
Despite negative myths and societal attitudes toward menstruation, most women associate regular menstrual cycles with healthy functioning and femininity. Further, research has found that women who have positive attitudes toward, and are comfortable with, menstruation are less likely to take sexual risks and more likely to be more comfortable with their bodies and with being sexually assertive than are women who have negative attitudes toward menstruation (Schooler et al., 2005). In addition, women who had been sexual with their partner during their periods were particularly comfortable with menstruation and were more aroused by sexual activities (Rempel & Baumgartner, 2003).
Some women and families are redefining menstruation from a more positive perspective. For example, some may have a celebration or give a gift to a young woman when she has her first menstrual period (Kissling, 2002). One aspect of the menstrual cycle that people often see as positive is its cyclic pattern, typical of many natural phenomena.