Up to this point, we have considered the impact of brain processes and sensory input on human sexual arousal. Several other factors can also affect a person’s arousability in a particular situation. Some of these directly affect the physiology of arousal; others can have a strong impact on a person’s sexuality through the power of belief. In the pages that follow we examine the effects of a number of products that people use to attempt to heighten or reduce sexual arousal.
Aphrodisiacs: Do They Work?
An aphrodisiac (a-fruh-DEE-zee-ak; named after Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and beauty) is a substance that supposedly arouses sexual desire or increases a person’s capacity for sexual activities. Almost from the beginning of time, people have searched for magic potions and other agents to revive flagging erotic interest or to produce Olympian sexual performances. That many have reported finding such sexual stimulants bears testimony, once again, to the powerful role of the mind in human sexual activity. We first consider a variety of foods that have been held to possess aphrodisiac qualities, and then we turn our attention to other alleged sexual stimulants, including alcohol and an assortment of chemical substances.
Almost any food that resembles the male external genitals has at one time or another been viewed as an aphrodisiac (Foley, 2006; Nordenberg, 2008). Many of us have heard the jokes about oysters, although for some a belief in the special properties of this particular shellfish is no joking matter. One wonders to what extent the oyster industry profits from this pervasive myth. Other foods sometimes considered aphrodisiacs include bananas, asparagus, cucumbers, tomatoes, ginseng root, and potatoes (Castle — man, 1997; Nordenberg, 2008). Particularly in Asian countries, a widespread belief persists that the ground-up horns of animals such as rhinoceros and reindeer are powerful sexual stimulants (Foley, 2006). (Have you ever used the term horny to describe a sexual state? Now you know its origin.) Unfortunately, the rhinoceros population in Africa has dwindled to the point of near extinction, largely as a result of the erroneous belief that rhinoceros horn is an effective aphrodisiac.
A number of drugs are also commonly thought to have aphrodisiac properties. Of these drugs, perhaps more has been written about the supposed stimulant properties of alcohol than about any other presumed aphrodisiac substance. In our culture the belief in the erotic enhancement properties of alcoholic beverages is widespread:
I am a great believer in the sexual benefits of drinking wine. after a couple glasses I become a real "hound in bed." I can always tell my partner is in the mood when she brings out a bottle of chilled rose. (Authors’ files)
Far from being a stimulant, alcohol has a depressing effect on higher brain centers and thus reduces cortical inhibitions, such as fear and guilt, that often block sexual expression (McKay, 2005; Prause et al., 2011). Alcohol can also impair our ability to cognitively process information (e. g., values and expectations for behavioral consequences) that might otherwise put the brakes on sexual impulses. In addition, alcohol can facilitate sexual activity by providing a convenient rationalization for behavior that might normally conflict with one’s values ("I just couldn’t help myself, with my mind fogged by booze"), and by reducing anxiety that may accompany sexual activity (Ryan-Berg, 2011).
Consumption of significant amounts of alcohol, however, can have serious negative effects on sexual functioning. Research has demonstrated that with increasing levels of intoxication both men and women experience reduced sexual arousal (as measured physiologically), decreased pleasurability and intensity of orgasm, and increased difficulty in attaining orgasm (McKay, 2005; Rosen & Ashton, 1993). Heavy alcohol use can also result in general physical deterioration, which commonly reduces a person’s interest in and capacity for sexual activity.
Alcohol use can have even more serious potential consequences in conjunction with sexual activity. Research has demonstrated a strong association between alcohol use and an inclination to participate in sexual practices that have a high risk for contracting a life-threatening disease, such as AIDS. (Other mind-altering drugs, such as marijuana and cocaine, have also been implicated in high-risk sexual behavior.) •
In addition to alcohol, several other drugs have been ascribed aphrodisiac qualities. Some of the substances included in this category are amphetamines, such as methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), commonly known as ecstasy; methamphetamine, often referred to as crystal meth; barbiturates; cantharides, also known as Spanish fly; cocaine; LSD and other psychedelic drugs; marijuana; amyl nitrite (a drug used to treat heart pain), also known as poppers; and L-dopa (a medication used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease). As you can see in the summary provided in ■ Table 6.1, not one of these drugs possesses attributes that qualify it as a true sexual stimulant.
Researchers are investigating one drug that may eventually be shown to have aphrodisiac qualities for at least some people. Since the 1920s, reports have touted the aphrodisiac properties of yohimbine hydrochloride, or yohimbine, a crystalline alkaloid derived from the sap of the yohimbe tree, which grows in West Africa. Several recent studies with male humans suggest that yohimbine treatment has the capacity to positively affect sexual desire and response (Adeniyi et al., 2007; Riley, 2010; Stein et al., 2008). Another study also demonstrated that yohimbine increases physiologically measured sexual arousal in postmenopausal women who report below-normal levels of sexual desire (Meston & Worcel, 2002).
Three prescription drugs used to treat male erectile dysfunction—Viagra, Levitra, and Cialis—may technically be classified as aphrodisiacs in that they increase capacity for sexual activity by facilitating genital vasocongestion and erection (see Chapter 14). None of these drugs increases sexual desire.
In view of the widespread inclination of humans to seek out substances with aphrodisiac qualities, and in light of escalating advances in the realm of sexual medicine, it seems likely that a variety of genuine aphrodisiacs will be available in the future. At present, people continue to use various substances despite clear-cut evidence that they lack true aphrodisiac qualities. Why do so many people around the world swear by the effects of a little powdered rhino horn, that special meal of oysters and banana salad, or the marijuana cigarette before an evening’s dalliance? The answer lies in faith and suggestion; these are the ingredients frequently present when aphrodisiac claims are made. If a person believes that something will improve his or her sex life, this faith is often translated into the subjective enhancement of sexual pleasure. From this perspective, literally anything has the potential of serving as a sexual stimulant. Consistent with this perspective is Theresa Crenshaw’s (1996) cogent observation that "love, however you define it, seems to be the best aphrodisiac of all" (p. 89).