Internet-Related Gender Differences
There are some gender differences in terms of access to Internet, Internet usage, attitudes towards the Internet, the frequency of Internet usage, self-assessment of Internet competency and confidence towards the Internet (Durndell & Haag, 2002; Hargittai & Shafer, 2006; Joiner et al., 2005; Li & Kirkup, 2007; Peng et al, 2006; Tsai et al., 2001; Wu & Tsai, 2006). However, some other studies show that there is a change in the younger generation. These studies suggested that the gender gaps are narrowing or even disappearing (Lin & Yu, 2008; Rainer et al, 2003; Tsai & Lin, 2004; Tsai & Tsai, 2010; Volman et al, 2005).
According to Park (2009), there are differences among generations regarding the gender gap. The gender difference was greater in the adult group than in the adolescent group in the case of the concentration of Internet usage.
According to Bimber (2000), some gender effects exist in Internet use. Due to some gender — based reasons and combination of those reasons, females are less extensive Internet users than males. In his study, Bimber (2000) stated that there were some gaps between males and females in terms of access to the Internet, but these gaps stemmed not only from gender-based factors, but also from socio-economic and other factors. He argued that these gaps would shrink over the long run as the differences of education and income between males and females gradually declined. According to Teo and Lim (1997), males found the Internet more exciting than females and thought about using it much more as well. In their subsequent study, Teo and Lim (2000), in addition to the gender differences, found differences between age groups in their Internet use. According to Teo and Lim’s (2000) study in Singapore, females under 21 often spent more time on their messaging activities compared to males. However, no significant differences were found among people over 21.
In the study in which Ono and Zavodny (2003) examined the dimension of gender differences in various Internet use measurements in the 19972001 periods, they found that females used the Internet much less compared to males during the late 1990s but that this gap began to disappear beginning in 2000. The findings of this study also reveal that females used the Internet much less infrequently and extensively. Jackson et al. (2001), on the other hand, stated that no gender differences emerged in their study regarding the overall use of the Internet. Shaw and Gant (2002) found no gender differences in Internet use in their study and explained that the reason for the lack of gender differences was the fast narrowing of the gender gap in the use of the Internet among the younger generation. As is clearly seen in the studies done and illustrated here, as of the year 2000, the gaps in the use of the Internet among the younger generation have gradually been diminishing and disappearing. However, Heimrath and Goulding (2001) stated in their study that the traditional gender role of the females restricted their Internet participation. The male and female respondents in their study indicated that females had less spare free time of their own and that males, compared to females, had greater exposure to the Internet due to their jobs and professions. According to the findings ofthis study, social roles play a key role in females’ participation on the Internet. Therefore, social conditions have both a direct effect on the environmental experiences and an indirect one on the perception of females of use of the Internet.
There are some gender-based differences related to the purpose of Internet use. Males regard the use of the Internet more highly compared to females because they think it enhances their job performance and labor productivity and provides information for them to make better decisions and enhance their effectiveness (Teo & Lim, 1997). In their study among university students and library workers, Heimrath and Goulding (2001) found that while males used the Internet for games, business, competition, computer software updates and professional awareness, females used it for shopping, banking, and new and various areas of information searching. In their study in which Orviska and Hudson (2009) examined Internet usage in EU member countrie s using Eurobarometer data for 2004 and 2005, they found that males are significantly more likely to use the Internet for banking, e-commerce, information and leisure. According to Garbarino and Strahilevitz (2004), in comparison to males (females 38%, males 27%), females spent most of their online time on using e-mail to stay in touch with others. Similarly, the other studies also reported that females, in comparisons to males, used e-mail with a stronger motivation for interpersonal communication and that males, compared to females, used the web more in order to access information (Akman & Mishra, 2010; Fang & Yen, 2006; Jackson et al., 2001; Tsai & Tsai, 2010; Weiser, 2000).