Although the biological mechanisms underlying human sexual arousal and response are essentially universal, the particular sexual stimuli and/or behaviors that people find arousing are greatly influenced by cultural conditioning. For example, in Western societies, in which the emphasis during sexual activity tends to be heavily weighted toward achieving orgasm, genitally focused activities are frequently defined as optimally arousing. In contrast, in some Asian societies sexual practices are interwoven with spiritual traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism, in which the primary goal of sexual interaction is not the mere achievement of orgasm but an extension of sexual arousal for long periods of time, often several hours (Stubbs, 1992). Devotees of Eastern Tantric traditions often achieve optimal pleasure by emphasizing the sensual and spiritual aspects of shared intimacy rather than orgasmic release (Michaels & Johnson, 2006; Richard, 2002).
In many non-Western societies, especially some African cultures, female orgasm is either rare or completely unknown (Ecker, 1993). Furthermore, in some of these societies, vaginal lubrication is negatively evaluated, and male partners may complain about it (Ecker, 1993).
Even in American society, ethnicity influences sexual response, and its effect is evident in female orgasm rates reported in the National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS). In this study 38% of African American women reported that they always have an orgasm during sexual interaction with their primary partner, compared with 26% of White American women and 34% of Hispanic women (Laumann et al., 1994). In the following paragraphs, we provide brief examples of some other facets of cultural diversity in human sexual arousal.
Kissing on the mouth, a universal source of sexual arousal in Western society, is rare or absent in many other parts of the world. Certain North American Inuit people and inhabitants of the Trobriand Islands would rather rub noses than lips, and among the Thonga of South Africa kissing is viewed as odious behavior. Hindu people of India are also disinclined to kiss because they believe that such contact symbolically contaminates the act of sexual intercourse. In their survey of 190 societies, Clellan Ford and Frank Beach (1951) found that mouth kissing was acknowledged in only 21 societies and was practiced as a prelude or accompaniment to coitus in only 13.
Oral sex (both cunnilingus and fellatio) is a common source of sexual arousal among island societies of the South Pacific, in industrialized nations of Asia, and in much of the Western world. In contrast, in Africa (with the exception of northern regions), such practices are likely to be viewed as unnatural or disgusting.
Foreplay in general, whether it be oral sex, sensual touching, or passionate kissing, is subject to wide cultural variation. In some societies, most notably those with Eastern traditions, couples strive to prolong intense states of sexual arousal for several hours (Devi, 1977). Although varied patterns of foreplay are common in Western cultures, these activities are often of short duration, as lovers move rapidly toward the "main event" of coitus. In still other societies foreplay is either sharply curtailed or absent altogether. For example, the Lepcha farmers of the southeastern Himalayas limit foreplay to men briefly caressing their partners’ breasts, and among the Irish inhabitants of Inis Beag, precoital sexual activity is reported to be limited to mouth kissing and rough fondling of the woman’s lower body by her partner (Messenger, 1971).
Another indicator of cultural diversity is the wide variety in standards of attractiveness. Although physical qualities exert a profound influence on human sexual arousal in virtually every culture, standards of attractiveness vary widely, as can be seen in the accompanying photos of women and men from around the world who are considered attractive in their own cultures. What may be attractive or a source of erotic arousal in
one culture may seem strange or unattractive in others. For instance, although some island societies attach erotic significance to the shape and textures of female genitals, most Western societies do not. To cite a final example, in many societies, bare female breasts are not generally viewed as erotic stimuli, as they are in the United States.
The brain is the storehouse of our memories and cultural values, and consequently its influence over our sexual arousability is profound. Strictly mental events, such as fantasies, are the product of the cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres that is responsible for higher mental processes. The cerebral cortex represents only one level of functioning at which the brain influences human sexual arousal and response. At a subcortical level the limbic system seems to play an important part in determining sexual behavior, both in humans and in other animals.
I Figure 6.1 shows some key structures in the limbic system. These include the cingulate gyrus, the amygdala, the hippocampus, and parts of the hypothalamus, which plays a regulating role. Research links various sites in the limbic system with sexual behavior (Arnow et al., 2002; Karama et al., 2002; Stark, 2005). Investigators have begun to use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology to record brain activity during sexual arousal. This research, described in the Spotlight on Research box, has provided further evidence of the involvement of the limbic system in sexual responding.
Evidence indicates that electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus in human subjects produces sexual arousal, sometimes culminating in orgasm. Medical researcher
Cingulate gyrus