Nonexperimental Research Methods

We began this chapter with three common notions about human sexual behavior: that exposure to violent pornography can increase a man’s tolerance of, and willingness to commit, sexually violent acts, such as rape; that alcohol can enhance sexual responsive­ness; and that vaginal orgasms are superior to clitoral orgasms. How do researchers go about investigating hypotheses such as these? In this section, we will look at three nonexperimental methods: (1) the case study, (2) the survey, and (3) direct observa­tion. Later in the chapter, we will learn about a fourth method, experimental research. ■ Table 2.1 summarizes these four major methods of studying sexual behavior. As we will see, not every research method is appropriate to every type of research question.

Case Studies

A case study examines either a single subject or a small group of subjects, each of whom is studied individually and in depth. Data are gathered using a variety of means, including direct observation, questionnaires, testing, and even experimentation.

Sex Research: Methods and problems

People often become subjects for case studies because they behave in an atypical way or have a physical or emotional disorder. For example, much of what is known about sex offenders, incest victims, transsexuals, sex workers, and the like has been learned from case studies. Also, a large portion of our information about difficulties in sexual response (such as erectile disorders in men and lack of orgasmic response in women) or atypical sexual response patterns comes from case studies of people seeking better understanding of, or treatment for, these problems. An interesting contemporary exam­ple of this research is the phenomenon of spontaneous orgasms, documented by a series of recent case studies that revealed an association between taking various antidepressant medications and experiencing orgasm without sexual sensory stimulation (Campbell & Schubert, 2007; Silverberg, 2008a). We discuss this unusual side effect of psychiatric medications in Chapter 6.

Not surprisingly, a number of case studies have investigated the relationship between sexually violent media and rape. In many of these studies, rapists report high levels of exposure to sexually violent films, magazines, and books. However, it is unclear whether violent attitudes toward women and behaviors such as rape result directly from exposure to sexually violent media. The mere fact that rapists seem more inclined than nonrapists to consume pornography does not necessarily imply a cause-and-effect relationship. Perhaps there are other plausible explanations. For example, the types of environments that tend to socialize men to be violent toward women might also be characterized by accessibility to violent pornography. Alternatively, men who have abusive proclivi­ties directed toward women may be inclined to consume sexually violent pornography. Thus, although the case-study method shows that this media exposure is often associ­ated with rape, it cannot tell us the exact nature of the relationship.

The case-study method has also been used to investigate the common assertion that alcohol enhances sexual responsiveness and pleasure. In fact, evidence from some case studies suggests just the reverse, at least among chronic alcoholics. Case studies

At a Glance

of alcoholic subjects have shown decreased arousability and lowered sexual interest, although it is possible that this effect is due to the general physical deterioration that accompanies heavy, long-term alcohol use.

The case-study approach offers some advantages to researchers. One advantage is the flexibility of data-gathering procedures. Although the open-ended format of the case study offers little opportunity for investigative control, it often provides opportuni­ties to acquire insight into specific behaviors. The highly personal, subjective informa­tion about what individuals actually think and feel about their behavior is an important step beyond simply recording activities. The case-study method sacrifices some control, but it offers opportunities to explore specific behaviors, thoughts, and feelings in depth and can add considerable dimension to our information.

The case-study method does have some limitations, however. Because case studies typically focus on individuals or small samples of especially interesting or atypical cases, it is often difficult to generalize findings accurately to broader populations. A second limitation of case studies is that a person’s past history, especially the person’s childhood and adolescence, usually does not become a target of research until the individual mani­fests some unusual behavior later in life, as an adult. People often have trouble accurately remembering events from years ago. Furthermore, memory is also subject to intentional efforts to distort or repress facts.

A third limitation of the case study is that it is not suitable for many kinds of research questions. For instance, a case study might not be the best method for test­ing the third assumption on this chapter’s opening page—that vaginal orgasms are superior to clitoral orgasms. And because personal accounts can be influenced by factors such as emotions, values, and the vagaries of memory, the reliability of the case-study method can also be in doubt.