Television

Television has likely had a significant effect on sexual attitudes and behaviors, given the amount of time people spend watching it. By the time we are 18 years old, each of us has watched TV for an average of 20,000 hours—certainly enough time for it to have some influence on our perspectives about sexuality (Manganello et al., 2008; Media Project, 2008). Despite all the new technologies, television remains dominant (Foehr, 2006). Young people’s computer, video game, e-mail, and instant messaging use does not displace time spent with television—it simply adds to the total time spent using media. On average, 8- to 18-year-olds spend 58 hours a week using some type of entertainment media—an increase of almost 9 hours a week since 2004 (Rideout et al., 2010).

The number of sexual scenes on standard network programs has nearly doubled since 1998, and Figure 1.2 shows when various types of sexual content first appeared on television. Among the 20 shows most watched by teens, 70% include sexual content (talking about sex, sexual innuendo) and 45% include sexual behavior. However, com­pared to 10 years ago, fewer young people are shown engaging in sexual activity: One in ten depictions of sexual intercourse involves teens and young adults, compared with one in four in 1998 (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2006).

The Federal Communications Commission imposes standards on public network tele­vision, but not on cable stations. Cable TV programs contain far more sexual explicitness than do network programs—as shown by Sex and the City, in which four New York City women talk with one another about faking orgasm, disappointment with penis size and rapid ejaculation, "funky spunk" (bad-tasting ejaculate), and an uncircumcised penis. The L Word and Queer as Folk were the first cable programs portraying the lives—and high­lighting the sex lives—of lesbian and gay individuals. Reality TV programs—Big Brother, Real World, The Bachelor, and the like—are fueled by sexual intrigue and expression.

Many critics are concerned that such material presents a far too cavalier approach to sex, encouraging youth to be sexually active too early, but most studies on the subject have been inconclusive (Escobar-Chaves et al., 2005). One study established a sexual media diet (SMD) by weighing the amount of sexual content in the TV shows, mov­ies, music, and magazines teens consumed regularly, along with the amount of time teens spent using the four forms of media. The study found that White teens whose SMD was in the top 20% were 2.2 times more likely to have had sexual intercourse by age 16 than were those whose SMD was in the lowest 20% (Brown & L’Engle, 2008).

However, as with most research, these findings indicate a correlation, not causation, and it may be that teens who are more sexually experienced seek out more sexual content in media. However, many depictions of sexuality in the media may trivialize the complex­ity of sexuality and create unrealistic expectations regarding sexual experiences.

At times, the ways sexual issues are presented on television have beneficial effects— promoting greater knowledge, tolerance, and positive social change. The Oprah Winfrey Show (which began airing in 1986) provided a forum for people to learn about and dis­cuss many aspects of human sexuality. Network and cable programs on child abuse, rape, and transgender concerns have helped to increase knowledge and to reduce the stigma associated with such topics (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001). Television advice and educational programs can offer constructive guidance. For example, Loveline host Drew Pinsky discusses young people’s concerns about relationships and sex and gives advice. Various studies have found that shows that portrayed negative consequences of sexual activity led to more negative attitudes toward intercourse before marriage, and portrayals of safe sex on television shows increased positive attitudes about condom use (Eyal & Kunkel, 2008). In addition, information about the potentially harmful physical and emotional consequences of sex has increased in programming. In 2005, 27% of tele­vision shows depicting or discussing intercourse referred to the risks and responsibili­ties of sex—twice the rate of 1998. Shows popular with teens have had an even greater increase in safe-sex content (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2006).

One study found a significant increase in viewers’ knowledge about mother-to-child HIV transmission after viewing a Grey’s Anatomy episode on the topic. I Figure 1.3 shows the increase in the viewers’ knowledge about an HIV-positive woman’s chance of having a healthy baby (Rideout, 2008). Television programs that model communication about sex may help some viewers talk to their sexual partners. For example, researchers showed three groups of students different edited versions of Sex and the City episodes: In one, the characters Samantha and Miranda discussed sexually transmitted diseases with friends, doctors, and sexual partners. The second version included content about STIs, but none of the characters discussed this topic with each other. The third episode had no reference to STIs. Two weeks later, the study participants completed a questionnaire asking whether they had talked to anyone about sexual diseases. Forty-six percent of college students who watched the episode in which characters discussed STIs said they had discussed sexual health issues with their partners since viewing the show. Twenty-one percent of those who saw the second version and 15% of those who watched the third version reported discuss­ing the topic with their sexual partners (Moyer-Guse et al., 2011).

The media can play a significant role in countries where sexual information has been taboo. For example, in the last decade Egypt and China have allowed the first sex education programs to be presented via public media. In 2006, an Egyptian sex therapist began the country’s first televised sex education program. Without discussing

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Perspectives on Sexuality

topics that are prohibited by Islam—sex outside of marriage, anal sex, or sex during menstruation—The Very Big Talk attempts to correct widespread sexual misinforma­tion in a culturally acceptable manner by melding Islam with modern sexual knowledge (El-Noshokaty, 2006). In China, the Tonight’s Whisperings radio program began in 1998 to address the gap between the sexual ignorance created by the repression of sex­ual information during the Cultural Revolution and the increase in teen sexual behavior. The show’s hosts respond to questions viewers send via e-mail and text message, many of which reveal a lack of knowledge of basic sexual facts (Fan, 2006).