Human Sexuality in a Diverse World

Sexuality Now

Human Sexuality in a Diverse WorldHuman Sexuality in a Diverse World

Подпись: " emale genital mutilation, also known as female circumcision or infibulation, is practiced in many parts of Africa and in a few other countries around the world. This operation has been performed throughout history to distinguish "respectable" women from prostitutes or slaves. Controlling "excessive" female sexual desire is one of the major reasons cited (Ugboma et al., 2004). Many cultures believe that unless the source of female pleasure is removed, women will become promiscuous or cheat on their husbands. As of 2004, it was estimated that 132 million women worldwide had undergone female genital mutilation (Daley, 2004). The procedure is usually done between the ages of 4 and 8, though in some cultures it is performed later (Dare et al., 2004). Female genital mutilation is often done without anes-thesia or antiseptic. In female circumcision the clitoris is re-moved, whereas infibulation involves the removal of the clitoris and the sewing of the labia tissues. The least severe form of circumcision involves lightly cutting the clitoris in order to cause bleeding but not excessive damage (Magoha & Magoha, 2000). The tip of the clitoris may also be removed, but the body of the clitoris is left intact. The most severe type of circumcision involves the complete removal of the clitoris and labia minora and also the scraping of the labia majora with knives, broken bottles, or razor blades (Carcopino et al., 2004). The remaining tissue is sewn together, leaving a matchstick-sized hole to allow for the passing of urine and menstrual blood. The young girl's legs are then bound together with rope, and she is immobilized for anywhere from 14 to 40 days for the circumcision to heal. The tighter the girl's infibulation, the higher the bride price will be for her. The majority of these procedures are performed by medically untrained personnel (Dare et al., 2004). Female genital mutilation can cause pain, urinary com-plications and/or dysfunction, shock, hemorrhage, infection, scarring, recurrent urinary infections, retention of menses at Подпись: menarche, vulval cysts, and pelvic inflammatory disease (Nour, 2004). Of these symptoms, severe pain and bleeding are most common (Dare et al., 2004). A woman who has been infibulated will require surgery during childbirth delivery (Carcopino et al., 2004). The day that a woman is circumcised is thought to be the most important day in her life, and it is accompanied in most cultures by rituals. Because menstruation is often very difficult through the pinhole opening, marriage usually takes place soon after menstruation begins. Marital penetration of the infibulation can take anywhere from 3 to 4 days to several months, and, in 15% of cases, men are unable to penetrate their wives at all. Often penetration results in severe pain, hemorrhaging, or infection, which may lead to death (Morrone et al., 2002). Anal intercourse is common in some of these cultures, because the vagina may not be penetrable. Approximately one-fifth of all women who undergo genital mutilation report wanting their daughters to also undergo the surgery (Dare et al., 2004). Recently, there has been controversy over what Americans and others should do to try to discourage this prac-tice. The United States has been strongly opposed to the practice of female genital mutilation and has worked hard to help reduce the practice. However, the rate at which women continue to undergo the procedure has not declined as rapidly as experts had hoped (Adams, 2004). Female circumcision is actually illegal in many of the countries where it is practiced, but it is hard to end a deeply ingrained social practice, especially among the rural and tribal peoples who have been performing the ritual for many centuries. The most common reason given for undergoing such procedures is culture and tradition (Carcopino et al., 2004; Dare et al., 2004). Some argue that those outside of Africa have no right to comment on a religious ritual, just as Africans have no right to oppose the circumcision of American males. However, African governments and other groups are beginning to make some headway in decreasing the prevalence of this practice.

Female Genital Mutilation

Prince Charles was made public. In reality, many activities can shred the hymen, in­cluding vigorous exercise, horseback or bike riding, masturbation, or the insertion of tampons or other objects into the vagina. Still, in many cultures during many historical eras, the absence of bloodstained sheets on the wedding night was enough to condemn a woman as “wanton” (promiscuous), and some knowing mothers encouraged their new­lywed daughters to have a little vial of blood from a chicken or other animal to pour on the sheet of their bridal bed, just in case. Although virginity “testing” (to check for an intact hymen) has been against the law in some countries, illegal virginity tests are rou­tinely performed (Pelin, 1999). Reconstructive surgery to repair a ruptured hymen is practiced in some countries (such as Turkey), but because of fear of repercussions, many physicians are afraid to perform these surgeries (Cindoglu, 1997).

There has been enough demand from women who desire “hymen-plasty” that today a handful of physicians offer the procedure. Hymen reconstruction is a procedure in which the mucous membranes in the vagina are sewn together to make a woman appear to be a virgin (Azam, 2000). Women from Middle Eastern cultures and many American and Canadian women have undergone such procedures.

Подпись: Bartholin's glands A pair of glands on either side of the vaginal opening that open by a duct into the space be-tween the hymen and the labia minora; also re-ferred to as the greater vestibular glands. Подпись:Подпись:Подпись:Подпись:Bartholin’s Glands The “greater vestibular glands,” or Bartholin’s (BAR-tha- lenz) glands, are bean-shaped glands whose ducts empty into the vestibule in the mid­dle of the labia minora. Historically, Bartholin’s glands have been presumed to provide lubrication for penile penetration of the vagina; however, they do not actually secrete enough lubrication for intercourse (Blumstein, 2001). It is also thought that they might be responsible for creating a genital scent. The Bartholin’s glands can become infected and form a cyst or abscess. When this happens, a woman experiences pain and swelling in the labial and vaginal areas. This is most common in women between the ages of 20 and 29 years old (Aghajanian et al., 1994).

The Perineum The perineum (pear-uh-NEE-um) is the tissue between the vagina and the anus. During childbirth, the baby can stretch the perineum, and in some women, it may tear or a doctor may do an episiotomy to allow more room for the baby’s head to emerge (we will discuss this more in Chapter 12).

Human Sexuality in a Diverse WorldQuestion: I’ve always been worried about the size and shape of my vaginal lips. They just seem too big and floppy. At this point, I’m so embarrassed about them that I can’t imagine ever being comfortable showing them to anyone. Is there anything I can do to fix them?

It’s important to remember that vulvas come in a variety of different shapes and sizes. Some women have long labial lips, whereas others have shorter ones. With the introduction of smaller swimsuits, bikini waxes, and expo­sure to various pornographic images, many women today are feeling increased pressure to have the "perfect vulva." Concerns like yours are common and it’s important to know that what you describe is perfectly normal.

However, there are some women that are so concerned about their vulva that they opt for vaginal plastic surgery. Vaginoplasty (tightening of the vaginal muscles) and labiaplasty (reduction of the labia minora) are two of the most popular vaginal procedures, even though they can cost up to $8,000. Research indicates these procedures are not without risk—reduced sensation and/or impaired sexual functioning are common side effects (Navarro, 2004). My advice would be to make peace with your vulva and don’t be brain­washed into believing there is a perfect vulva!

Updated: 04.11.2015 — 22:30